diff --git a/apps/esmtool/record.cpp b/apps/esmtool/record.cpp
index d20bb4619c..0c22114749 100644
--- a/apps/esmtool/record.cpp
+++ b/apps/esmtool/record.cpp
@@ -1171,9 +1171,6 @@ namespace EsmTool
     template <>
     void Record<ESM::Race>::print()
     {
-        static const char* sAttributeNames[ESM::Attribute::Length]
-            = { "Strength", "Intelligence", "Willpower", "Agility", "Speed", "Endurance", "Personality", "Luck" };
-
         std::cout << "  Name: " << mData.mName << std::endl;
         std::cout << "  Description: " << mData.mDescription << std::endl;
         std::cout << "  Flags: " << raceFlags(mData.mData.mFlags) << std::endl;
@@ -1185,8 +1182,8 @@ namespace EsmTool
             std::cout << (male ? "  Male:" : "  Female:") << std::endl;
 
             for (int j = 0; j < ESM::Attribute::Length; ++j)
-                std::cout << "    " << sAttributeNames[j] << ": " << mData.mData.mAttributeValues[j].getValue(male)
-                          << std::endl;
+                std::cout << "    " << ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(j) << ": "
+                          << mData.mData.mAttributeValues[j].getValue(male) << std::endl;
 
             std::cout << "    Height: " << mData.mData.mHeight.getValue(male) << std::endl;
             std::cout << "    Weight: " << mData.mData.mWeight.getValue(male) << std::endl;
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwclass/ingredient.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwclass/ingredient.cpp
index 88446e2d4f..e87f74218b 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwclass/ingredient.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwclass/ingredient.cpp
@@ -138,12 +138,9 @@ namespace MWClass
                 continue;
             MWGui::Widgets::SpellEffectParams params;
             params.mEffectID = ref->mBase->mData.mEffectID[i];
-            params.mAttribute = ref->mBase->mData.mAttributes[i];
-            params.mSkill = ref->mBase->mData.mSkills[i];
-
-            params.mKnown = ((i == 0 && alchemySkill >= fWortChanceValue)
-                || (i == 1 && alchemySkill >= fWortChanceValue * 2) || (i == 2 && alchemySkill >= fWortChanceValue * 3)
-                || (i == 3 && alchemySkill >= fWortChanceValue * 4));
+            params.mAttribute = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(ref->mBase->mData.mAttributes[i]);
+            params.mSkill = ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(ref->mBase->mData.mSkills[i]);
+            params.mKnown = alchemySkill >= fWortChanceValue * (i + 1);
 
             list.push_back(params);
         }
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwclass/npc.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwclass/npc.cpp
index fd0817d327..6506b13b4c 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwclass/npc.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwclass/npc.cpp
@@ -93,7 +93,8 @@ namespace
         int level = creatureStats.getLevel();
         for (const ESM::Attribute& attribute : attributes)
         {
-            const ESM::Race::MaleFemale& value = race->mData.mAttributeValues[attribute.mId];
+            const ESM::Race::MaleFemale& value
+                = race->mData.mAttributeValues[ESM::Attribute::refIdToIndex(attribute.mId)];
             creatureStats.setAttribute(attribute.mId, male ? value.mMale : value.mFemale);
         }
 
@@ -104,7 +105,7 @@ namespace
         {
             if (attribute >= 0 && attribute < ESM::Attribute::Length)
             {
-                auto id = static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(attribute);
+                auto id = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(attribute);
                 creatureStats.setAttribute(id, creatureStats.getAttribute(id).getBase() + 10);
             }
         }
@@ -113,10 +114,11 @@ namespace
         for (const ESM::Attribute& attribute : attributes)
         {
             float modifierSum = 0;
+            int attributeIndex = ESM::Attribute::refIdToIndex(attribute.mId);
 
             for (const ESM::Skill& skill : MWBase::Environment::get().getESMStore()->get<ESM::Skill>())
             {
-                if (skill.mData.mAttribute != attribute.mId)
+                if (skill.mData.mAttribute != attributeIndex)
                     continue;
 
                 // is this a minor or major skill?
@@ -148,7 +150,8 @@ namespace
         else if (class_->mData.mSpecialization == ESM::Class::Stealth)
             multiplier += 1;
 
-        if (std::find(class_->mData.mAttribute.begin(), class_->mData.mAttribute.end(), ESM::Attribute::Endurance)
+        if (std::find(class_->mData.mAttribute.begin(), class_->mData.mAttribute.end(),
+                ESM::Attribute::refIdToIndex(ESM::Attribute::Endurance))
             != class_->mData.mAttribute.end())
             multiplier += 1;
 
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwdialogue/filter.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwdialogue/filter.cpp
index 2b36c4577d..899acf603e 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwdialogue/filter.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwdialogue/filter.cpp
@@ -383,7 +383,7 @@ int MWDialogue::Filter::getSelectStructInteger(const SelectWrapper& select) cons
 
         case SelectWrapper::Function_PcAttribute:
         {
-            auto attribute = static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(select.getArgument());
+            ESM::RefId attribute = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(select.getArgument());
             return player.getClass().getCreatureStats(player).getAttribute(attribute).getModified();
         }
         case SelectWrapper::Function_PcSkill:
@@ -654,9 +654,9 @@ bool MWDialogue::Filter::hasFactionRankSkillRequirements(
 
     MWMechanics::CreatureStats& stats = actor.getClass().getCreatureStats(actor);
 
-    return stats.getAttribute(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID(faction.mData.mAttribute[0])).getBase()
+    return stats.getAttribute(ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(faction.mData.mAttribute[0])).getBase()
         >= faction.mData.mRankData[rank].mAttribute1
-        && stats.getAttribute(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID(faction.mData.mAttribute[1])).getBase()
+        && stats.getAttribute(ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(faction.mData.mAttribute[1])).getBase()
         >= faction.mData.mRankData[rank].mAttribute2;
 }
 
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/charactercreation.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/charactercreation.cpp
index 5aaa1e7330..19f7d97176 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/charactercreation.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/charactercreation.cpp
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ namespace MWGui
             mPlayerSkillValues.emplace(skill.mId, MWMechanics::SkillValue());
     }
 
-    void CharacterCreation::setValue(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID id, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value)
+    void CharacterCreation::setAttribute(ESM::RefId id, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value)
     {
         mPlayerAttributes[id] = value;
         if (mReviewDialog)
@@ -263,8 +263,7 @@ namespace MWGui
                     mReviewDialog->setFatigue(stats.getFatigue());
                     for (auto& attributePair : mPlayerAttributes)
                     {
-                        mReviewDialog->setAttribute(
-                            static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(attributePair.first), attributePair.second);
+                        mReviewDialog->setAttribute(attributePair.first, attributePair.second);
                     }
                     for (const auto& [skill, value] : mPlayerSkillValues)
                     {
@@ -462,9 +461,10 @@ namespace MWGui
             klass.mData.mIsPlayable = 0x1;
             klass.mRecordFlags = 0;
 
-            std::vector<int> attributes = mCreateClassDialog->getFavoriteAttributes();
-            assert(attributes.size() == klass.mData.mAttribute.size());
-            std::copy(attributes.begin(), attributes.end(), klass.mData.mAttribute.begin());
+            std::vector<ESM::RefId> attributes = mCreateClassDialog->getFavoriteAttributes();
+            assert(attributes.size() >= klass.mData.mAttribute.size());
+            for (size_t i = 0; i < klass.mData.mAttribute.size(); ++i)
+                klass.mData.mAttribute[i] = ESM::Attribute::refIdToIndex(attributes[i]);
 
             std::vector<ESM::RefId> majorSkills = mCreateClassDialog->getMajorSkills();
             std::vector<ESM::RefId> minorSkills = mCreateClassDialog->getMinorSkills();
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/charactercreation.hpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/charactercreation.hpp
index d590c0cfd6..b5bd35b49c 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/charactercreation.hpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/charactercreation.hpp
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ namespace MWGui
         // Show a dialog
         void spawnDialog(const char id);
 
-        void setValue(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID id, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value) override;
+        void setAttribute(ESM::RefId id, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value) override;
         void setValue(std::string_view id, const MWMechanics::DynamicStat<float>& value) override;
         void setValue(ESM::RefId id, const MWMechanics::SkillValue& value) override;
         void configureSkills(const std::vector<ESM::RefId>& major, const std::vector<ESM::RefId>& minor) override;
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ namespace MWGui
         Resource::ResourceSystem* mResourceSystem;
 
         std::vector<ESM::RefId> mPlayerMajorSkills, mPlayerMinorSkills;
-        std::map<int, MWMechanics::AttributeValue> mPlayerAttributes;
+        std::map<ESM::RefId, MWMechanics::AttributeValue> mPlayerAttributes;
         std::map<ESM::RefId, MWMechanics::SkillValue> mPlayerSkillValues;
 
         // Dialogs
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/class.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/class.cpp
index 202f18ad35..f71da8bdf5 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/class.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/class.cpp
@@ -260,8 +260,8 @@ namespace MWGui
         mSpecializationName->setCaption(specName);
         ToolTips::createSpecializationToolTip(mSpecializationName, specName, specialization);
 
-        mFavoriteAttribute[0]->setAttributeId(static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(klass->mData.mAttribute[0]));
-        mFavoriteAttribute[1]->setAttributeId(static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(klass->mData.mAttribute[1]));
+        mFavoriteAttribute[0]->setAttributeId(ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(klass->mData.mAttribute[0]));
+        mFavoriteAttribute[1]->setAttributeId(ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(klass->mData.mAttribute[1]));
         ToolTips::createAttributeToolTip(mFavoriteAttribute[0], mFavoriteAttribute[0]->getAttributeId());
         ToolTips::createAttributeToolTip(mFavoriteAttribute[1], mFavoriteAttribute[1]->getAttributeId());
 
@@ -509,9 +509,9 @@ namespace MWGui
         return mSpecializationId;
     }
 
-    std::vector<int> CreateClassDialog::getFavoriteAttributes() const
+    std::vector<ESM::RefId> CreateClassDialog::getFavoriteAttributes() const
     {
-        std::vector<int> v;
+        std::vector<ESM::RefId> v;
         v.push_back(mFavoriteAttribute0->getAttributeId());
         v.push_back(mFavoriteAttribute1->getAttributeId());
         return v;
@@ -599,7 +599,7 @@ namespace MWGui
 
     void CreateClassDialog::onAttributeSelected()
     {
-        ESM::Attribute::AttributeID id = mAttribDialog->getAttributeId();
+        ESM::RefId id = mAttribDialog->getAttributeId();
         if (mAffectedAttribute == mFavoriteAttribute0)
         {
             if (mFavoriteAttribute1->getAttributeId() == id)
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/class.hpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/class.hpp
index 7cd7b01370..f89a0c7d88 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/class.hpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/class.hpp
@@ -188,7 +188,7 @@ namespace MWGui
 
         bool exit() override;
 
-        ESM::Attribute::AttributeID getAttributeId() const { return mAttributeId; }
+        ESM::RefId getAttributeId() const { return mAttributeId; }
 
         // Events
         typedef MyGUI::delegates::MultiDelegate<> EventHandle_Void;
@@ -208,7 +208,7 @@ namespace MWGui
         void onCancelClicked(MyGUI::Widget* _sender);
 
     private:
-        ESM::Attribute::AttributeID mAttributeId;
+        ESM::RefId mAttributeId;
     };
 
     class SelectSkillDialog : public WindowModal
@@ -274,7 +274,7 @@ namespace MWGui
         std::string getName() const;
         std::string getDescription() const;
         ESM::Class::Specialization getSpecializationId() const;
-        std::vector<int> getFavoriteAttributes() const;
+        std::vector<ESM::RefId> getFavoriteAttributes() const;
         std::vector<ESM::RefId> getMajorSkills() const;
         std::vector<ESM::RefId> getMinorSkills() const;
 
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/review.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/review.cpp
index 7b08d20c9b..04c3806c0e 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/review.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/review.cpp
@@ -200,7 +200,7 @@ namespace MWGui
         mFatigue->setUserString("Caption_HealthDescription", "#{sFatDesc}\n" + valStr);
     }
 
-    void ReviewDialog::setAttribute(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID attributeId, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value)
+    void ReviewDialog::setAttribute(ESM::RefId attributeId, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value)
     {
         auto attr = mAttributeWidgets.find(attributeId);
         if (attr == mAttributeWidgets.end())
@@ -412,7 +412,7 @@ namespace MWGui
         if (!mRaceId.empty())
             race = MWBase::Environment::get().getESMStore()->get<ESM::Race>().find(mRaceId);
 
-        std::map<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID, MWMechanics::AttributeValue> attributes;
+        std::map<ESM::RefId, MWMechanics::AttributeValue> attributes;
         for (const auto& [key, value] : mAttributeWidgets)
             attributes[key] = value->getAttributeValue();
 
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/review.hpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/review.hpp
index f1e764012e..6f594c60f0 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/review.hpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/review.hpp
@@ -3,7 +3,6 @@
 
 #include "widgets.hpp"
 #include "windowbase.hpp"
-#include <components/esm/attr.hpp>
 #include <components/esm/refid.hpp>
 #include <components/esm3/loadclas.hpp>
 
@@ -38,7 +37,7 @@ namespace MWGui
         void setMagicka(const MWMechanics::DynamicStat<float>& value);
         void setFatigue(const MWMechanics::DynamicStat<float>& value);
 
-        void setAttribute(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID attributeId, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value);
+        void setAttribute(ESM::RefId attributeId, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value);
 
         void configureSkills(const std::vector<ESM::RefId>& major, const std::vector<ESM::RefId>& minor);
         void setSkillValue(ESM::RefId id, const MWMechanics::SkillValue& value);
@@ -90,7 +89,7 @@ namespace MWGui
 
         Widgets::MWDynamicStatPtr mHealth, mMagicka, mFatigue;
 
-        std::map<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID, Widgets::MWAttributePtr> mAttributeWidgets;
+        std::map<ESM::RefId, Widgets::MWAttributePtr> mAttributeWidgets;
 
         std::vector<ESM::RefId> mMajorSkills, mMinorSkills, mMiscSkills;
         std::map<ESM::RefId, MWMechanics::SkillValue> mSkillValues;
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/spellcreationdialog.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/spellcreationdialog.cpp
index 7105112cca..a1ffce7d8b 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/spellcreationdialog.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/spellcreationdialog.cpp
@@ -291,9 +291,9 @@ namespace MWGui
         eventEffectModified(mEffect);
     }
 
-    void EditEffectDialog::setAttribute(int attribute)
+    void EditEffectDialog::setAttribute(ESM::RefId attribute)
     {
-        mEffect.mAttribute = attribute;
+        mEffect.mAttribute = ESM::Attribute::refIdToIndex(attribute);
         eventEffectModified(mEffect);
     }
 
@@ -689,8 +689,8 @@ namespace MWGui
         {
             Widgets::SpellEffectParams params;
             params.mEffectID = effectInfo.mEffectID;
-            params.mSkill = effectInfo.mSkill;
-            params.mAttribute = effectInfo.mAttribute;
+            params.mSkill = ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(effectInfo.mSkill);
+            params.mAttribute = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(effectInfo.mAttribute);
             params.mDuration = effectInfo.mDuration;
             params.mMagnMin = effectInfo.mMagnMin;
             params.mMagnMax = effectInfo.mMagnMax;
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/spellcreationdialog.hpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/spellcreationdialog.hpp
index 6cd1e2a3ac..d6e8a56438 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/spellcreationdialog.hpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/spellcreationdialog.hpp
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ namespace MWGui
         void setConstantEffect(bool constant);
 
         void setSkill(ESM::RefId skill);
-        void setAttribute(int attribute);
+        void setAttribute(ESM::RefId attribute);
 
         void newEffect(const ESM::MagicEffect* effect);
         void editEffect(ESM::ENAMstruct effect);
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/spellicons.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/spellicons.cpp
index 3347e9c269..5337e2f798 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/spellicons.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/spellicons.cpp
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ namespace MWGui
                 if (!(effect.mFlags & ESM::ActiveEffect::Flag_Applied))
                     continue;
                 MagicEffectInfo newEffectSource;
-                newEffectSource.mKey = MWMechanics::EffectKey(effect.mEffectId, effect.mArg);
+                newEffectSource.mKey = MWMechanics::EffectKey(effect.mEffectId, effect.getSkillOrAttribute());
                 newEffectSource.mMagnitude = static_cast<int>(effect.mMagnitude);
                 newEffectSource.mPermanent = effect.mDuration == -1.f;
                 newEffectSource.mRemainingTime = effect.mTimeLeft;
@@ -82,8 +82,7 @@ namespace MWGui
 
                 if (effect->mData.mFlags & ESM::MagicEffect::TargetSkill)
                 {
-                    const ESM::Skill* skill
-                        = store->get<ESM::Skill>().find(ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(effectInfo.mKey.mArg));
+                    const ESM::Skill* skill = store->get<ESM::Skill>().find(effectInfo.mKey.mArg);
                     sourcesDescription += " (" + skill->mName + ')';
                 }
                 if (effect->mData.mFlags & ESM::MagicEffect::TargetAttribute)
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/spellmodel.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/spellmodel.cpp
index 181ee28bea..f340d072e0 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/spellmodel.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/spellmodel.cpp
@@ -53,7 +53,8 @@ namespace MWGui
             if (effectId != -1)
             {
                 const ESM::MagicEffect* magicEffect = store.get<ESM::MagicEffect>().find(effectId);
-                const ESM::Attribute* attribute = store.get<ESM::Attribute>().search(effect.mAttribute);
+                const ESM::Attribute* attribute
+                    = store.get<ESM::Attribute>().search(ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(effect.mAttribute));
                 const ESM::Skill* skill = store.get<ESM::Skill>().search(ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(effect.mSkill));
 
                 std::string fullEffectName = MWMechanics::getMagicEffectString(*magicEffect, attribute, skill);
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/statswatcher.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/statswatcher.cpp
index fe2493b754..90872346f7 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/statswatcher.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/statswatcher.cpp
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ namespace MWGui
             if (value != mWatchedAttributes[attribute.mId] || mWatchedStatsEmpty)
             {
                 mWatchedAttributes[attribute.mId] = value;
-                setValue(attribute.mId, value);
+                setAttribute(attribute.mId, value);
             }
         }
 
@@ -150,10 +150,10 @@ namespace MWGui
         mListeners.erase(listener);
     }
 
-    void StatsWatcher::setValue(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID id, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value)
+    void StatsWatcher::setAttribute(ESM::RefId id, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value)
     {
         for (StatsListener* listener : mListeners)
-            listener->setValue(id, value);
+            listener->setAttribute(id, value);
     }
 
     void StatsWatcher::setValue(ESM::RefId id, const MWMechanics::SkillValue& value)
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/statswatcher.hpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/statswatcher.hpp
index d4a9e54243..fafae4452c 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/statswatcher.hpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/statswatcher.hpp
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ namespace MWGui
         virtual ~StatsListener() = default;
 
         /// Set value for the given ID.
-        virtual void setValue(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID id, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value) {}
+        virtual void setAttribute(ESM::RefId id, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value) {}
         virtual void setValue(std::string_view id, const MWMechanics::DynamicStat<float>& value) {}
         virtual void setValue(std::string_view, const std::string& value) {}
         virtual void setValue(std::string_view, int value) {}
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ namespace MWGui
     {
         MWWorld::Ptr mWatched;
 
-        std::map<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID, MWMechanics::AttributeValue> mWatchedAttributes;
+        std::map<ESM::RefId, MWMechanics::AttributeValue> mWatchedAttributes;
         std::map<ESM::RefId, MWMechanics::SkillValue> mWatchedSkills;
 
         MWMechanics::DynamicStat<float> mWatchedHealth;
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ namespace MWGui
 
         std::set<StatsListener*> mListeners;
 
-        void setValue(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID id, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value);
+        void setAttribute(ESM::RefId id, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value);
         void setValue(std::string_view id, const MWMechanics::DynamicStat<float>& value);
         void setValue(std::string_view id, const std::string& value);
         void setValue(std::string_view id, int value);
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/statswindow.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/statswindow.cpp
index c493907b54..cb16ab6d15 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/statswindow.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/statswindow.cpp
@@ -157,7 +157,7 @@ namespace MWGui
         mMainWidget->castType<MyGUI::Window>()->setCaption(playerName);
     }
 
-    void StatsWindow::setValue(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID id, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value)
+    void StatsWindow::setAttribute(ESM::RefId id, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value)
     {
         auto it = mAttributeWidgets.find(id);
         if (it != mAttributeWidgets.end())
@@ -505,7 +505,8 @@ namespace MWGui
                 continue;
             }
 
-            const ESM::Attribute* attr = esmStore.get<ESM::Attribute>().find(skill->mData.mAttribute);
+            const ESM::Attribute* attr
+                = esmStore.get<ESM::Attribute>().find(ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(skill->mData.mAttribute));
 
             std::pair<MyGUI::TextBox*, MyGUI::TextBox*> widgets
                 = addValueItem(skill->mName, {}, "normal", coord1, coord2);
@@ -620,8 +621,10 @@ namespace MWGui
                         text += std::string("\n\n#{fontcolourhtml=header}#{sNextRank} ") + faction->mRanks[rank + 1];
 
                         const ESM::RankData& rankData = faction->mData.mRankData[rank + 1];
-                        const ESM::Attribute* attr1 = store.get<ESM::Attribute>().find(faction->mData.mAttribute[0]);
-                        const ESM::Attribute* attr2 = store.get<ESM::Attribute>().find(faction->mData.mAttribute[1]);
+                        const ESM::Attribute* attr1 = store.get<ESM::Attribute>().find(
+                            ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(faction->mData.mAttribute[0]));
+                        const ESM::Attribute* attr2 = store.get<ESM::Attribute>().find(
+                            ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(faction->mData.mAttribute[1]));
 
                         text += "\n#{fontcolourhtml=normal}" + MyGUI::TextIterator::toTagsString(attr1->mName) + ": "
                             + MyGUI::utility::toString(rankData.mAttribute1) + ", "
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/statswindow.hpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/statswindow.hpp
index 92926c1180..cab8cd2eb2 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/statswindow.hpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/statswindow.hpp
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ namespace MWGui
         void setPlayerName(const std::string& playerName);
 
         /// Set value for the given ID.
-        void setValue(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID id, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value) override;
+        void setAttribute(ESM::RefId id, const MWMechanics::AttributeValue& value) override;
         void setValue(std::string_view id, const MWMechanics::DynamicStat<float>& value) override;
         void setValue(std::string_view id, const std::string& value) override;
         void setValue(std::string_view id, int value) override;
@@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ namespace MWGui
 
         std::vector<ESM::RefId> mMajorSkills, mMinorSkills, mMiscSkills;
         std::map<ESM::RefId, MWMechanics::SkillValue> mSkillValues;
-        std::map<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID, MyGUI::TextBox*> mAttributeWidgets;
+        std::map<ESM::RefId, MyGUI::TextBox*> mAttributeWidgets;
         std::map<ESM::RefId, std::pair<MyGUI::TextBox*, MyGUI::TextBox*>> mSkillWidgetMap;
         std::map<std::string, MyGUI::Widget*> mFactionWidgetMap;
         FactionList mFactions; ///< Stores a list of factions and the current rank
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/tooltips.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/tooltips.cpp
index e46aa2fc0f..6beee8d07b 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/tooltips.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/tooltips.cpp
@@ -225,8 +225,8 @@ namespace MWGui
                     {
                         Widgets::SpellEffectParams params;
                         params.mEffectID = spellEffect.mEffectID;
-                        params.mSkill = spellEffect.mSkill;
-                        params.mAttribute = spellEffect.mAttribute;
+                        params.mSkill = ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(spellEffect.mSkill);
+                        params.mAttribute = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(spellEffect.mAttribute);
                         params.mDuration = spellEffect.mDuration;
                         params.mMagnMin = spellEffect.mMagnMin;
                         params.mMagnMax = spellEffect.mMagnMax;
@@ -804,7 +804,8 @@ namespace MWGui
 
         const MWWorld::ESMStore& store = *MWBase::Environment::get().getESMStore();
         const ESM::Skill* skill = store.get<ESM::Skill>().find(skillId);
-        const ESM::Attribute* attr = store.get<ESM::Attribute>().find(skill->mData.mAttribute);
+        const ESM::Attribute* attr
+            = store.get<ESM::Attribute>().find(ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(skill->mData.mAttribute));
 
         widget->setUserString("ToolTipType", "Layout");
         widget->setUserString("ToolTipLayout", "SkillNoProgressToolTip");
@@ -815,7 +816,7 @@ namespace MWGui
         widget->setUserString("ImageTexture_SkillNoProgressImage", skill->mIcon);
     }
 
-    void ToolTips::createAttributeToolTip(MyGUI::Widget* widget, ESM::Attribute::AttributeID attributeId)
+    void ToolTips::createAttributeToolTip(MyGUI::Widget* widget, ESM::RefId attributeId)
     {
         const ESM::Attribute* attribute
             = MWBase::Environment::get().getESMStore()->get<ESM::Attribute>().search(attributeId);
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/tooltips.hpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/tooltips.hpp
index c1a6e4ef68..69f6856840 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/tooltips.hpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/tooltips.hpp
@@ -92,7 +92,7 @@ namespace MWGui
         // these do not create an actual tooltip, but they fill in the data that is required so the tooltip
         // system knows what to show in case this widget is hovered
         static void createSkillToolTip(MyGUI::Widget* widget, ESM::RefId skillId);
-        static void createAttributeToolTip(MyGUI::Widget* widget, ESM::Attribute::AttributeID attributeId);
+        static void createAttributeToolTip(MyGUI::Widget* widget, ESM::RefId attributeId);
         static void createSpecializationToolTip(MyGUI::Widget* widget, const std::string& name, int specId);
         static void createBirthsignToolTip(MyGUI::Widget* widget, const ESM::RefId& birthsignId);
         static void createRaceToolTip(MyGUI::Widget* widget, const ESM::Race* playerRace);
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/trainingwindow.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/trainingwindow.cpp
index 2b5e64adf0..6929a7fdc8 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/trainingwindow.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/trainingwindow.cpp
@@ -165,7 +165,7 @@ namespace MWGui
 
         // You can not train a skill above its governing attribute
         if (pcStats.getSkill(skill->mId).getBase()
-            >= pcStats.getAttribute(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID(skill->mData.mAttribute)).getBase())
+            >= pcStats.getAttribute(ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(skill->mData.mAttribute)).getBase())
         {
             MWBase::Environment::get().getWindowManager()->messageBox("#{sNotifyMessage17}");
             return;
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/widgets.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/widgets.cpp
index a161eed25b..debacfbed9 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/widgets.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/widgets.cpp
@@ -101,13 +101,12 @@ namespace MWGui::Widgets
     /* MWAttribute */
 
     MWAttribute::MWAttribute()
-        : mId(ESM::Attribute::Length)
-        , mAttributeNameWidget(nullptr)
+        : mAttributeNameWidget(nullptr)
         , mAttributeValueWidget(nullptr)
     {
     }
 
-    void MWAttribute::setAttributeId(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID attributeId)
+    void MWAttribute::setAttributeId(ESM::RefId attributeId)
     {
         mId = attributeId;
         updateWidgets();
@@ -204,8 +203,8 @@ namespace MWGui::Widgets
                 = creator->createWidget<MWSpellEffect>("MW_EffectImage", coord, MyGUI::Align::Default);
             SpellEffectParams params;
             params.mEffectID = effectInfo.mEffectID;
-            params.mSkill = effectInfo.mSkill;
-            params.mAttribute = effectInfo.mAttribute;
+            params.mSkill = ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(effectInfo.mSkill);
+            params.mAttribute = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(effectInfo.mAttribute);
             params.mDuration = effectInfo.mDuration;
             params.mMagnMin = effectInfo.mMagnMin;
             params.mMagnMax = effectInfo.mMagnMax;
@@ -315,8 +314,8 @@ namespace MWGui::Widgets
         {
             SpellEffectParams params;
             params.mEffectID = effectInfo.mEffectID;
-            params.mSkill = effectInfo.mSkill;
-            params.mAttribute = effectInfo.mAttribute;
+            params.mSkill = ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(effectInfo.mSkill);
+            params.mAttribute = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(effectInfo.mAttribute);
             params.mDuration = effectInfo.mDuration;
             params.mMagnMin = effectInfo.mMagnMin;
             params.mMagnMax = effectInfo.mMagnMax;
@@ -358,7 +357,7 @@ namespace MWGui::Widgets
 
         const ESM::MagicEffect* magicEffect = store.get<ESM::MagicEffect>().search(mEffectParams.mEffectID);
         const ESM::Attribute* attribute = store.get<ESM::Attribute>().search(mEffectParams.mAttribute);
-        const ESM::Skill* skill = store.get<ESM::Skill>().search(ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(mEffectParams.mSkill));
+        const ESM::Skill* skill = store.get<ESM::Skill>().search(mEffectParams.mSkill);
 
         assert(magicEffect);
 
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwgui/widgets.hpp b/apps/openmw/mwgui/widgets.hpp
index 03c21605f0..d562e4e07f 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwgui/widgets.hpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwgui/widgets.hpp
@@ -41,8 +41,6 @@ namespace MWGui
                 , mNoMagnitude(false)
                 , mKnown(true)
                 , mEffectID(-1)
-                , mSkill(-1)
-                , mAttribute(-1)
                 , mMagnMin(-1)
                 , mMagnMax(-1)
                 , mRange(-1)
@@ -60,8 +58,7 @@ namespace MWGui
             // value of -1 here means the effect is unknown to the player
             short mEffectID;
 
-            // value of -1 here means there is no skill/attribute
-            signed char mSkill, mAttribute;
+            ESM::RefId mSkill, mAttribute;
 
             // value of -1 here means the value is unavailable
             int mMagnMin, mMagnMax, mRange, mDuration;
@@ -138,10 +135,10 @@ namespace MWGui
 
             typedef MWMechanics::AttributeValue AttributeValue;
 
-            void setAttributeId(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID attributeId);
+            void setAttributeId(ESM::RefId attributeId);
             void setAttributeValue(const AttributeValue& value);
 
-            ESM::Attribute::AttributeID getAttributeId() const { return mId; }
+            ESM::RefId getAttributeId() const { return mId; }
             const AttributeValue& getAttributeValue() const { return mValue; }
 
             // Events
@@ -162,7 +159,7 @@ namespace MWGui
         private:
             void updateWidgets();
 
-            ESM::Attribute::AttributeID mId;
+            ESM::RefId mId;
             AttributeValue mValue;
             MyGUI::TextBox* mAttributeNameWidget;
             MyGUI::TextBox* mAttributeValueWidget;
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwlua/luabindings.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwlua/luabindings.cpp
index ec0f09b59b..cadadc3a82 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwlua/luabindings.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwlua/luabindings.cpp
@@ -179,11 +179,18 @@ namespace MWLua
             skills[key] = id;
         }
 
-        sol::table attribute(context.mLua->sol(), sol::create);
-        api["ATTRIBUTE"] = LuaUtil::makeStrictReadOnly(attribute);
-        for (int id = 0; id < ESM::Attribute::Length; ++id)
-            attribute[ESM::Attribute::sAttributeNames[id]]
-                = Misc::StringUtils::lowerCase(ESM::Attribute::sAttributeNames[id]);
+        // TODO: deprecate this and provide access to the store instead
+        sol::table attributes(context.mLua->sol(), sol::create);
+        api["ATTRIBUTE"] = LuaUtil::makeStrictReadOnly(attributes);
+        for (int i = 0; i < ESM::Attribute::Length; ++i)
+        {
+            ESM::RefId attribute = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(i);
+            std::string id = attribute.serializeText();
+            std::string key = Misc::StringUtils::lowerCase(attribute.getRefIdString());
+            // force first character to uppercase for backwards compatability
+            key[0] += 'A' - 'a';
+            attributes[key] = id;
+        }
 
         return LuaUtil::makeReadOnly(api);
     }
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwlua/magicbindings.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwlua/magicbindings.cpp
index c1da27f279..d1dab50574 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwlua/magicbindings.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwlua/magicbindings.cpp
@@ -358,10 +358,10 @@ namespace MWLua
               });
         effectParamsT["affectedAttribute"]
             = sol::readonly_property([](const ESM::ENAMstruct& params) -> sol::optional<std::string> {
-                  if (params.mAttribute >= 0 && params.mAttribute < ESM::Attribute::Length)
-                      return Misc::StringUtils::lowerCase(ESM::Attribute::sAttributeNames[params.mAttribute]);
-                  else
-                      return sol::nullopt;
+                  ESM::RefId id = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(params.mAttribute);
+                  if (!id.empty())
+                      return id.serializeText();
+                  return sol::nullopt;
               });
         effectParamsT["range"]
             = sol::readonly_property([](const ESM::ENAMstruct& params) -> int { return params.mRange; });
@@ -419,23 +419,21 @@ namespace MWLua
             return Misc::StringUtils::lowerCase(name);
         });
         activeSpellEffectT["name"] = sol::readonly_property([](const ESM::ActiveEffect& effect) -> std::string {
-            return MWMechanics::EffectKey(effect.mEffectId, effect.mArg).toString();
+            return MWMechanics::EffectKey(effect.mEffectId, effect.getSkillOrAttribute()).toString();
         });
         activeSpellEffectT["affectedSkill"]
             = sol::readonly_property([magicEffectStore](const ESM::ActiveEffect& effect) -> sol::optional<std::string> {
                   auto* rec = magicEffectStore->find(effect.mEffectId);
-                  if ((rec->mData.mFlags & ESM::MagicEffect::TargetSkill) && effect.mArg >= 0
-                      && effect.mArg < ESM::Skill::Length)
-                      return ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(effect.mArg).serializeText();
+                  if (rec->mData.mFlags & ESM::MagicEffect::TargetSkill)
+                      return effect.getSkillOrAttribute().serializeText();
                   else
                       return sol::nullopt;
               });
         activeSpellEffectT["affectedAttribute"]
             = sol::readonly_property([magicEffectStore](const ESM::ActiveEffect& effect) -> sol::optional<std::string> {
                   auto* rec = magicEffectStore->find(effect.mEffectId);
-                  if ((rec->mData.mFlags & ESM::MagicEffect::TargetAttribute) && effect.mArg >= 0
-                      && effect.mArg < ESM::Attribute::Length)
-                      return Misc::StringUtils::lowerCase(ESM::Attribute::sAttributeNames[effect.mArg]);
+                  if (rec->mData.mFlags & ESM::MagicEffect::TargetAttribute)
+                      return effect.getSkillOrAttribute().serializeText();
                   else
                       return sol::nullopt;
               });
@@ -542,20 +540,15 @@ namespace MWLua
             = sol::readonly_property([magicEffectStore](const ActiveEffect& effect) -> sol::optional<std::string> {
                   auto* rec = magicEffectStore->find(effect.key.mId);
                   if (rec->mData.mFlags & ESM::MagicEffect::TargetSkill)
-                  {
-                      ESM::RefId id = ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(effect.key.mArg);
-                      return id.serializeText();
-                  }
+                      return effect.key.mArg.serializeText();
                   return sol::nullopt;
               });
         activeEffectT["affectedAttribute"]
             = sol::readonly_property([magicEffectStore](const ActiveEffect& effect) -> sol::optional<std::string> {
                   auto* rec = magicEffectStore->find(effect.key.mId);
-                  if ((rec->mData.mFlags & ESM::MagicEffect::TargetAttribute) && effect.key.mArg >= 0
-                      && effect.key.mArg < ESM::Attribute::Length)
-                      return Misc::StringUtils::lowerCase(ESM::Attribute::sAttributeNames[effect.key.mArg]);
-                  else
-                      return sol::nullopt;
+                  if (rec->mData.mFlags & ESM::MagicEffect::TargetAttribute)
+                      return effect.key.mArg.serializeText();
+                  return sol::nullopt;
               });
 
         activeEffectT["magnitude"]
@@ -777,12 +770,15 @@ namespace MWLua
             {
                 // MWLua exposes attributes and skills as strings, so we have to convert them back to IDs here
                 if (rec->mData.mFlags & ESM::MagicEffect::TargetAttribute)
-                    key = MWMechanics::EffectKey(id, ESM::Attribute::stringToAttributeId(argStr.value()));
+                {
+                    ESM::RefId attribute = ESM::RefId::deserializeText(argStr.value());
+                    key = MWMechanics::EffectKey(id, attribute);
+                }
 
                 if (rec->mData.mFlags & ESM::MagicEffect::TargetSkill)
                 {
                     ESM::RefId skill = ESM::RefId::deserializeText(argStr.value());
-                    key = MWMechanics::EffectKey(id, ESM::Skill::refIdToIndex(skill));
+                    key = MWMechanics::EffectKey(id, skill);
                 }
             }
 
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwlua/stats.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwlua/stats.cpp
index bbac88e6e2..c202e9dc33 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwlua/stats.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwlua/stats.cpp
@@ -171,11 +171,11 @@ namespace MWLua
     class AttributeStat
     {
         ObjectVariant mObject;
-        int mIndex;
+        ESM::RefId mId;
 
-        AttributeStat(ObjectVariant object, int index)
+        AttributeStat(ObjectVariant object, ESM::RefId id)
             : mObject(std::move(object))
-            , mIndex(index)
+            , mId(id)
         {
         }
 
@@ -183,10 +183,9 @@ namespace MWLua
         template <class G>
         sol::object get(const Context& context, std::string_view prop, G getter) const
         {
-            auto id = static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(mIndex);
             return getValue(
-                context, mObject, &AttributeStat::setValue, mIndex, prop, [id, getter](const MWWorld::Ptr& ptr) {
-                    return (ptr.getClass().getCreatureStats(ptr).getAttribute(id).*getter)();
+                context, mObject, &AttributeStat::setValue, mId, prop, [this, getter](const MWWorld::Ptr& ptr) {
+                    return (ptr.getClass().getCreatureStats(ptr).getAttribute(mId).*getter)();
                 });
         }
 
@@ -202,20 +201,20 @@ namespace MWLua
         {
             if (!object.ptr().getClass().isActor())
                 return {};
-            int index = std::get<int>(i);
-            return AttributeStat{ std::move(object), index };
+            ESM::RefId id = std::get<ESM::RefId>(i);
+            return AttributeStat{ std::move(object), id };
         }
 
         void cache(const Context& context, std::string_view prop, const sol::object& value) const
         {
             SelfObject* obj = mObject.asSelfObject();
             addStatUpdateAction(context.mLuaManager, *obj);
-            obj->mStatsCache[SelfObject::CachedStat{ &AttributeStat::setValue, mIndex, prop }] = value;
+            obj->mStatsCache[SelfObject::CachedStat{ &AttributeStat::setValue, mId, prop }] = value;
         }
 
         static void setValue(Index i, std::string_view prop, const MWWorld::Ptr& ptr, const sol::object& value)
         {
-            auto id = static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(std::get<int>(i));
+            ESM::RefId id = std::get<ESM::RefId>(i);
             auto& stats = ptr.getClass().getCreatureStats(ptr);
             auto stat = stats.getAttribute(id);
             float floatValue = LuaUtil::cast<float>(value);
@@ -370,9 +369,8 @@ namespace MWLua
         addProp(context, attributeStatT, "modifier", &MWMechanics::AttributeValue::getModifier);
         sol::table attributes(context.mLua->sol(), sol::create);
         stats["attributes"] = LuaUtil::makeReadOnly(attributes);
-        for (int id = ESM::Attribute::Strength; id < ESM::Attribute::Length; ++id)
-            attributes[Misc::StringUtils::lowerCase(ESM::Attribute::sAttributeNames[id])]
-                = addIndexedAccessor<AttributeStat>(id);
+        for (const ESM::Attribute& attribute : MWBase::Environment::get().getESMStore()->get<ESM::Attribute>())
+            attributes[ESM::RefId(attribute.mId).serializeText()] = addIndexedAccessor<AttributeStat>(attribute.mId);
     }
 
     void addNpcStatsBindings(sol::table& npc, const Context& context)
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/activespells.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/activespells.cpp
index 8294f915e8..decbae765b 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/activespells.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/activespells.cpp
@@ -548,14 +548,13 @@ namespace MWMechanics
         purge([=](const ActiveSpellParams& params) { return params.mId == id; }, ptr);
     }
 
-    void ActiveSpells::purgeEffect(const MWWorld::Ptr& ptr, int effectId, int effectArg)
+    void ActiveSpells::purgeEffect(const MWWorld::Ptr& ptr, int effectId, ESM::RefId effectArg)
     {
         purge(
             [=](const ActiveSpellParams&, const ESM::ActiveEffect& effect) {
-                if (effectArg < 0)
+                if (effectArg.empty())
                     return effect.mEffectId == effectId;
-                else
-                    return effect.mEffectId == effectId && effect.mArg == effectArg;
+                return effect.mEffectId == effectId && effect.getSkillOrAttribute() == effectArg;
             },
             ptr);
     }
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/activespells.hpp b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/activespells.hpp
index c804e0d1da..87497d9d7a 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/activespells.hpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/activespells.hpp
@@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
         void removeEffects(const MWWorld::Ptr& ptr, const ESM::RefId& id);
 
         /// Remove all active effects with this effect id
-        void purgeEffect(const MWWorld::Ptr& ptr, int effectId, int effectArg = -1);
+        void purgeEffect(const MWWorld::Ptr& ptr, int effectId, ESM::RefId effectArg = {});
 
         void purge(EffectPredicate predicate, const MWWorld::Ptr& ptr);
         void purge(ParamsPredicate predicate, const MWWorld::Ptr& ptr);
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/alchemy.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/alchemy.cpp
index 4c7dc14417..914de6da2b 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/alchemy.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/alchemy.cpp
@@ -45,9 +45,10 @@ std::set<MWMechanics::EffectKey> MWMechanics::Alchemy::listEffects() const
             for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i)
                 if (ingredient->mBase->mData.mEffectID[i] != -1)
                 {
-                    EffectKey key(ingredient->mBase->mData.mEffectID[i],
-                        ingredient->mBase->mData.mSkills[i] != -1 ? ingredient->mBase->mData.mSkills[i]
-                                                                  : ingredient->mBase->mData.mAttributes[i]);
+                    ESM::RefId arg = ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(ingredient->mBase->mData.mSkills[i]);
+                    if (arg.empty())
+                        arg = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(ingredient->mBase->mData.mAttributes[i]);
+                    EffectKey key(ingredient->mBase->mData.mEffectID[i], arg);
 
                     if (seenEffects.insert(key).second)
                         ++effects[key];
@@ -203,9 +204,9 @@ void MWMechanics::Alchemy::updateEffects()
             effect.mSkill = -1;
 
             if (magicEffect->mData.mFlags & ESM::MagicEffect::TargetSkill)
-                effect.mSkill = iter->mArg;
+                effect.mSkill = ESM::Skill::refIdToIndex(iter->mArg);
             else if (magicEffect->mData.mFlags & ESM::MagicEffect::TargetAttribute)
-                effect.mAttribute = iter->mArg;
+                effect.mAttribute = ESM::Attribute::refIdToIndex(iter->mArg);
 
             effect.mRange = 0;
             effect.mArea = 0;
@@ -576,7 +577,8 @@ std::vector<std::string> MWMechanics::Alchemy::effectsDescription(const MWWorld:
 
         if (effectID != -1)
         {
-            const ESM::Attribute* attribute = store->get<ESM::Attribute>().search(data.mAttributes[i]);
+            const ESM::Attribute* attribute
+                = store->get<ESM::Attribute>().search(ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(data.mAttributes[i]));
             const ESM::Skill* skill = store->get<ESM::Skill>().search(ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(data.mSkills[i]));
             std::string effect = getMagicEffectString(*mgef.find(effectID), attribute, skill);
 
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/autocalcspell.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/autocalcspell.cpp
index 13fcef073f..6581aacdd2 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/autocalcspell.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/autocalcspell.cpp
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
     };
 
     std::vector<ESM::RefId> autoCalcNpcSpells(const std::map<ESM::RefId, SkillValue>& actorSkills,
-        const std::map<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID, AttributeValue>& actorAttributes, const ESM::Race* race)
+        const std::map<ESM::RefId, AttributeValue>& actorAttributes, const ESM::Race* race)
     {
         const MWWorld::Store<ESM::GameSetting>& gmst
             = MWBase::Environment::get().getESMStore()->get<ESM::GameSetting>();
@@ -136,7 +136,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
     }
 
     std::vector<ESM::RefId> autoCalcPlayerSpells(const std::map<ESM::RefId, SkillValue>& actorSkills,
-        const std::map<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID, AttributeValue>& actorAttributes, const ESM::Race* race)
+        const std::map<ESM::RefId, AttributeValue>& actorAttributes, const ESM::Race* race)
     {
         const MWWorld::ESMStore& esmStore = *MWBase::Environment::get().getESMStore();
 
@@ -215,7 +215,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
     }
 
     bool attrSkillCheck(const ESM::Spell* spell, const std::map<ESM::RefId, SkillValue>& actorSkills,
-        const std::map<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID, AttributeValue>& actorAttributes)
+        const std::map<ESM::RefId, AttributeValue>& actorAttributes)
     {
         for (const auto& spellEffect : spell->mEffects.mList)
         {
@@ -237,7 +237,8 @@ namespace MWMechanics
 
             if ((magicEffect->mData.mFlags & ESM::MagicEffect::TargetAttribute))
             {
-                auto found = actorAttributes.find(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID(spellEffect.mAttribute));
+                ESM::RefId attribute = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(spellEffect.mAttribute);
+                auto found = actorAttributes.find(attribute);
                 if (found == actorAttributes.end() || found->second.getBase() < iAutoSpellAttSkillMin)
                     return false;
             }
@@ -299,7 +300,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
     }
 
     float calcAutoCastChance(const ESM::Spell* spell, const std::map<ESM::RefId, SkillValue>& actorSkills,
-        const std::map<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID, AttributeValue>& actorAttributes, ESM::RefId effectiveSchool)
+        const std::map<ESM::RefId, AttributeValue>& actorAttributes, ESM::RefId effectiveSchool)
     {
         if (spell->mData.mType != ESM::Spell::ST_Spell)
             return 100.f;
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/autocalcspell.hpp b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/autocalcspell.hpp
index 7edfd8b75e..c7c8d5f733 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/autocalcspell.hpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/autocalcspell.hpp
@@ -20,21 +20,21 @@ namespace MWMechanics
     /// @note We might want to move this code to a component later, so the editor can use it for preview purposes
 
     std::vector<ESM::RefId> autoCalcNpcSpells(const std::map<ESM::RefId, SkillValue>& actorSkills,
-        const std::map<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID, AttributeValue>& actorAttributes, const ESM::Race* race);
+        const std::map<ESM::RefId, AttributeValue>& actorAttributes, const ESM::Race* race);
 
     std::vector<ESM::RefId> autoCalcPlayerSpells(const std::map<ESM::RefId, SkillValue>& actorSkills,
-        const std::map<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID, AttributeValue>& actorAttributes, const ESM::Race* race);
+        const std::map<ESM::RefId, AttributeValue>& actorAttributes, const ESM::Race* race);
 
     // Helpers
 
     bool attrSkillCheck(const ESM::Spell* spell, const std::map<ESM::RefId, SkillValue>& actorSkills,
-        const std::map<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID, AttributeValue>& actorAttributes);
+        const std::map<ESM::RefId, AttributeValue>& actorAttributes);
 
     void calcWeakestSchool(const ESM::Spell* spell, const std::map<ESM::RefId, SkillValue>& actorSkills,
         ESM::RefId& effectiveSchool, float& skillTerm);
 
     float calcAutoCastChance(const ESM::Spell* spell, const std::map<ESM::RefId, SkillValue>& actorSkills,
-        const std::map<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID, AttributeValue>& actorAttributes, ESM::RefId effectiveSchool);
+        const std::map<ESM::RefId, AttributeValue>& actorAttributes, ESM::RefId effectiveSchool);
 
 }
 
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/creaturestats.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/creaturestats.cpp
index 756ac1ef39..757bdf7c49 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/creaturestats.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/creaturestats.cpp
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
         return fFatigueBase - fFatigueMult * (1 - normalised);
     }
 
-    const AttributeValue& CreatureStats::getAttribute(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID id) const
+    const AttributeValue& CreatureStats::getAttribute(ESM::RefId id) const
     {
         return mAttributes.at(id);
     }
@@ -147,14 +147,14 @@ namespace MWMechanics
         return mMagicEffects;
     }
 
-    void CreatureStats::setAttribute(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID id, float base)
+    void CreatureStats::setAttribute(ESM::RefId id, float base)
     {
         AttributeValue current = getAttribute(id);
         current.setBase(base);
         setAttribute(id, current);
     }
 
-    void CreatureStats::setAttribute(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID id, const AttributeValue& value)
+    void CreatureStats::setAttribute(ESM::RefId id, const AttributeValue& value)
     {
         const AttributeValue& currentValue = mAttributes.at(id);
 
@@ -531,7 +531,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
     void CreatureStats::writeState(ESM::CreatureStats& state) const
     {
         for (size_t i = 0; i < state.mAttributes.size(); ++i)
-            getAttribute(static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(i)).writeState(state.mAttributes[i]);
+            getAttribute(ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(i)).writeState(state.mAttributes[i]);
 
         for (size_t i = 0; i < state.mDynamic.size(); ++i)
             mDynamic[i].writeState(state.mDynamic[i]);
@@ -588,7 +588,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
         if (!state.mMissingACDT)
         {
             for (size_t i = 0; i < state.mAttributes.size(); ++i)
-                mAttributes[static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(i)].readState(state.mAttributes[i]);
+                mAttributes[ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(i)].readState(state.mAttributes[i]);
 
             for (size_t i = 0; i < state.mDynamic.size(); ++i)
                 mDynamic[i].readState(state.mDynamic[i]);
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/creaturestats.hpp b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/creaturestats.hpp
index ffe6e40a91..f0a834bd33 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/creaturestats.hpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/creaturestats.hpp
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
     {
         static int sActorId;
         DrawState mDrawState;
-        std::map<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID, AttributeValue> mAttributes;
+        std::map<ESM::RefId, AttributeValue> mAttributes;
         DynamicStat<float> mDynamic[3]; // health, magicka, fatigue
         Spells mSpells;
         ActiveSpells mActiveSpells;
@@ -113,7 +113,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
         /// @return total fall height
         float land(bool isPlayer = false);
 
-        const AttributeValue& getAttribute(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID id) const;
+        const AttributeValue& getAttribute(ESM::RefId id) const;
 
         const DynamicStat<float>& getHealth() const;
 
@@ -139,9 +139,9 @@ namespace MWMechanics
 
         MagicEffects& getMagicEffects();
 
-        void setAttribute(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID id, const AttributeValue& value);
+        void setAttribute(ESM::RefId id, const AttributeValue& value);
         // Shortcut to set only the base
-        void setAttribute(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID id, float base);
+        void setAttribute(ESM::RefId id, float base);
 
         void setHealth(const DynamicStat<float>& value);
 
@@ -294,7 +294,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
         bool wasTeleported() const { return mTeleported; }
         void setTeleported(bool v) { mTeleported = v; }
 
-        const std::map<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID, AttributeValue> getAttributes() const { return mAttributes; }
+        const std::map<ESM::RefId, AttributeValue> getAttributes() const { return mAttributes; }
     };
 }
 
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/magiceffects.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/magiceffects.cpp
index b64799fe08..0d626c9e11 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/magiceffects.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/magiceffects.cpp
@@ -27,24 +27,21 @@ namespace MWMechanics
 {
     EffectKey::EffectKey()
         : mId(0)
-        , mArg(-1)
     {
     }
 
     EffectKey::EffectKey(const ESM::ENAMstruct& effect)
     {
         mId = effect.mEffectID;
-        mArg = -1;
+        mArg = ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(effect.mSkill);
 
-        if (effect.mSkill != -1)
-            mArg = effect.mSkill;
-
-        if (effect.mAttribute != -1)
+        ESM::RefId attribute = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(effect.mAttribute);
+        if (!attribute.empty())
         {
-            if (mArg != -1)
+            if (!mArg.empty())
                 throw std::runtime_error("magic effect can't have both a skill and an attribute argument");
 
-            mArg = effect.mAttribute;
+            mArg = attribute;
         }
     }
 
@@ -52,8 +49,8 @@ namespace MWMechanics
     {
         const auto& store = MWBase::Environment::get().getESMStore();
         const ESM::MagicEffect* magicEffect = store->get<ESM::MagicEffect>().search(mId);
-        return getMagicEffectString(*magicEffect, store->get<ESM::Attribute>().search(mArg),
-            store->get<ESM::Skill>().search(ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(mArg)));
+        return getMagicEffectString(
+            *magicEffect, store->get<ESM::Attribute>().search(mArg), store->get<ESM::Skill>().search(mArg));
     }
 
     bool operator<(const EffectKey& left, const EffectKey& right)
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/magiceffects.hpp b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/magiceffects.hpp
index e03f3db21f..b9831c0250 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/magiceffects.hpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/magiceffects.hpp
@@ -5,6 +5,8 @@
 #include <optional>
 #include <string>
 
+#include <components/esm/refid.hpp>
+
 namespace ESM
 {
     struct Attribute;
@@ -20,11 +22,11 @@ namespace MWMechanics
     struct EffectKey
     {
         int mId;
-        int mArg; // skill or ability
+        ESM::RefId mArg; // skill or ability
 
         EffectKey();
 
-        EffectKey(int id, int arg = -1)
+        EffectKey(int id, ESM::RefId arg = {})
             : mId(id)
             , mArg(arg)
         {
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/mechanicsmanagerimp.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/mechanicsmanagerimp.cpp
index f49e8b1e09..29fe4dd2a6 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/mechanicsmanagerimp.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/mechanicsmanagerimp.cpp
@@ -150,7 +150,8 @@ namespace MWMechanics
 
             for (const ESM::Attribute& attribute : esmStore.get<ESM::Attribute>())
             {
-                const ESM::Race::MaleFemale& value = race->mData.mAttributeValues[attribute.mId];
+                const ESM::Race::MaleFemale& value
+                    = race->mData.mAttributeValues[ESM::Attribute::refIdToIndex(attribute.mId)];
 
                 creatureStats.setAttribute(attribute.mId, male ? value.mMale : value.mFemale);
             }
@@ -193,11 +194,9 @@ namespace MWMechanics
 
             for (int attribute : class_->mData.mAttribute)
             {
-                if (attribute >= 0 && attribute < ESM::Attribute::Length)
-                {
-                    auto id = static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(attribute);
+                ESM::RefId id = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(attribute);
+                if (!id.empty())
                     creatureStats.setAttribute(id, creatureStats.getAttribute(id).getBase() + 10);
-                }
             }
 
             for (int i = 0; i < 2; ++i)
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/npcstats.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/npcstats.cpp
index ecd0770d35..5c62eb8276 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/npcstats.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/npcstats.cpp
@@ -246,7 +246,7 @@ void MWMechanics::NpcStats::increaseSkill(ESM::RefId id, const ESM::Class& class
         }
     }
 
-    mSkillIncreases[ESM::Attribute::AttributeID(skill->mData.mAttribute)] += increase;
+    mSkillIncreases[ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(skill->mData.mAttribute)] += increase;
 
     mSpecIncreases[skill->mData.mSpecialization] += gmst.find("iLevelupSpecialization")->mValue.getInteger();
 
@@ -488,7 +488,7 @@ void MWMechanics::NpcStats::writeState(ESM::NpcStats& state) const
 
     state.mSkillIncrease.fill(0);
     for (const auto& [key, value] : mSkillIncreases)
-        state.mSkillIncrease[key] = value;
+        state.mSkillIncrease[ESM::Attribute::refIdToIndex(key)] = value;
 
     for (size_t i = 0; i < state.mSpecIncreases.size(); ++i)
         state.mSpecIncreases[i] = mSpecIncreases[i];
@@ -538,7 +538,7 @@ void MWMechanics::NpcStats::readState(const ESM::NpcStats& state)
     mLevelProgress = state.mLevelProgress;
 
     for (size_t i = 0; i < state.mSkillIncrease.size(); ++i)
-        mSkillIncreases[static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(i)] = state.mSkillIncrease[i];
+        mSkillIncreases[ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(i)] = state.mSkillIncrease[i];
 
     for (size_t i = 0; i < state.mSpecIncreases.size(); ++i)
         mSpecIncreases[i] = state.mSpecIncreases[i];
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/npcstats.hpp b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/npcstats.hpp
index 39db2dd30a..cae94414c9 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/npcstats.hpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/npcstats.hpp
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
         std::set<ESM::RefId> mExpelled;
         std::map<ESM::RefId, int> mFactionReputation;
         int mLevelProgress; // 0-10
-        std::map<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID, int>
+        std::map<ESM::RefId, int>
             mSkillIncreases; // number of skill increases for each attribute (resets after leveling up)
         std::vector<int> mSpecIncreases; // number of skill increases for each specialization (accumulates throughout
                                          // the entire game)
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/spelleffects.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/spelleffects.cpp
index ea2f2a5267..253c4015b5 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/spelleffects.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/spelleffects.cpp
@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ namespace
     void damageAttribute(const MWWorld::Ptr& target, const ESM::ActiveEffect& effect, float magnitude)
     {
         auto& creatureStats = target.getClass().getCreatureStats(target);
-        auto attribute = static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(effect.mArg);
+        auto attribute = effect.getSkillOrAttribute();
         auto attr = creatureStats.getAttribute(attribute);
         if (effect.mEffectId == ESM::MagicEffect::DamageAttribute)
             magnitude = std::min(attr.getModified(), magnitude);
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ namespace
     void restoreAttribute(const MWWorld::Ptr& target, const ESM::ActiveEffect& effect, float magnitude)
     {
         auto& creatureStats = target.getClass().getCreatureStats(target);
-        auto attribute = static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(effect.mArg);
+        auto attribute = effect.getSkillOrAttribute();
         auto attr = creatureStats.getAttribute(attribute);
         attr.restore(magnitude);
         creatureStats.setAttribute(attribute, attr);
@@ -100,7 +100,7 @@ namespace
     void fortifyAttribute(const MWWorld::Ptr& target, const ESM::ActiveEffect& effect, float magnitude)
     {
         auto& creatureStats = target.getClass().getCreatureStats(target);
-        auto attribute = static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(effect.mArg);
+        auto attribute = effect.getSkillOrAttribute();
         auto attr = creatureStats.getAttribute(attribute);
         attr.setModifier(attr.getModifier() + magnitude);
         creatureStats.setAttribute(attribute, attr);
@@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ namespace
     void damageSkill(const MWWorld::Ptr& target, const ESM::ActiveEffect& effect, float magnitude)
     {
         auto& npcStats = target.getClass().getNpcStats(target);
-        auto& skill = npcStats.getSkill(ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(effect.mArg));
+        auto& skill = npcStats.getSkill(effect.getSkillOrAttribute());
         if (effect.mEffectId == ESM::MagicEffect::DamageSkill)
             magnitude = std::min(skill.getModified(), magnitude);
         skill.damage(magnitude);
@@ -118,14 +118,14 @@ namespace
     void restoreSkill(const MWWorld::Ptr& target, const ESM::ActiveEffect& effect, float magnitude)
     {
         auto& npcStats = target.getClass().getNpcStats(target);
-        auto& skill = npcStats.getSkill(ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(effect.mArg));
+        auto& skill = npcStats.getSkill(effect.getSkillOrAttribute());
         skill.restore(magnitude);
     }
 
     void fortifySkill(const MWWorld::Ptr& target, const ESM::ActiveEffect& effect, float magnitude)
     {
         auto& npcStats = target.getClass().getNpcStats(target);
-        auto& skill = npcStats.getSkill(ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(effect.mArg));
+        auto& skill = npcStats.getSkill(effect.getSkillOrAttribute());
         skill.setModifier(skill.getModifier() + magnitude);
     }
 
@@ -670,7 +670,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
                     if (spellParams.getType() == ESM::ActiveSpells::Type_Ability)
                     {
                         auto& npcStats = target.getClass().getNpcStats(target);
-                        SkillValue& skill = npcStats.getSkill(ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(effect.mArg));
+                        SkillValue& skill = npcStats.getSkill(effect.getSkillOrAttribute());
                         // Damage Skill abilities reduce base skill :todd:
                         skill.setBase(std::max(skill.getBase() - effect.mMagnitude, 0.f));
                     }
@@ -741,7 +741,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
                 if (spellParams.getType() == ESM::ActiveSpells::Type_Ability)
                 {
                     auto& creatureStats = target.getClass().getCreatureStats(target);
-                    auto attribute = static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(effect.mArg);
+                    auto attribute = effect.getSkillOrAttribute();
                     AttributeValue attr = creatureStats.getAttribute(attribute);
                     attr.setBase(attr.getBase() + effect.mMagnitude);
                     creatureStats.setAttribute(attribute, attr);
@@ -762,7 +762,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
                 {
                     // Abilities affect base stats, but not for drain
                     auto& npcStats = target.getClass().getNpcStats(target);
-                    auto& skill = npcStats.getSkill(ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(effect.mArg));
+                    auto& skill = npcStats.getSkill(effect.getSkillOrAttribute());
                     skill.setBase(skill.getBase() + effect.mMagnitude);
                 }
                 else
@@ -1033,7 +1033,8 @@ namespace MWMechanics
                 applyMagicEffect(target, caster, spellParams, effect, invalid, receivedMagicDamage, affectedHealth,
                     recalculateMagicka);
             effect.mMagnitude = magnitude;
-            magnitudes.add(EffectKey(effect.mEffectId, effect.mArg), EffectParam(effect.mMagnitude - oldMagnitude));
+            magnitudes.add(EffectKey(effect.mEffectId, effect.getSkillOrAttribute()),
+                EffectParam(effect.mMagnitude - oldMagnitude));
         }
         effect.mTimeLeft -= dt;
         if (invalid)
@@ -1145,13 +1146,14 @@ namespace MWMechanics
             case ESM::MagicEffect::SummonCreature04:
             case ESM::MagicEffect::SummonCreature05:
             {
-                if (effect.mArg != -1)
-                    MWBase::Environment::get().getMechanicsManager()->cleanupSummonedCreature(target, effect.mArg);
+                int actorId = effect.getActorId();
+                if (actorId != -1)
+                    MWBase::Environment::get().getMechanicsManager()->cleanupSummonedCreature(target, actorId);
                 auto& summons = target.getClass().getCreatureStats(target).getSummonedCreatureMap();
                 auto [begin, end] = summons.equal_range(effect.mEffectId);
                 for (auto it = begin; it != end; ++it)
                 {
-                    if (it->second == effect.mArg)
+                    if (it->second == actorId)
                     {
                         summons.erase(it);
                         break;
@@ -1205,7 +1207,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
                 if (spellParams.getType() == ESM::ActiveSpells::Type_Ability)
                 {
                     auto& creatureStats = target.getClass().getCreatureStats(target);
-                    auto attribute = static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(effect.mArg);
+                    auto attribute = effect.getSkillOrAttribute();
                     AttributeValue attr = creatureStats.getAttribute(attribute);
                     attr.setBase(attr.getBase() - effect.mMagnitude);
                     creatureStats.setAttribute(attribute, attr);
@@ -1221,7 +1223,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
                 if (spellParams.getType() == ESM::ActiveSpells::Type_Ability)
                 {
                     auto& npcStats = target.getClass().getNpcStats(target);
-                    auto& skill = npcStats.getSkill(ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(effect.mArg));
+                    auto& skill = npcStats.getSkill(effect.getSkillOrAttribute());
                     skill.setBase(skill.getBase() - effect.mMagnitude);
                 }
                 else
@@ -1277,7 +1279,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
         if (!(effect.mFlags & ESM::ActiveEffect::Flag_Applied))
             return;
         auto& magnitudes = target.getClass().getCreatureStats(target).getMagicEffects();
-        magnitudes.add(EffectKey(effect.mEffectId, effect.mArg), EffectParam(-effect.mMagnitude));
+        magnitudes.add(EffectKey(effect.mEffectId, effect.getSkillOrAttribute()), EffectParam(-effect.mMagnitude));
         removeMagicEffect(target, spellParams, effect);
         if (magnitudes.getOrDefault(effect.mEffectId).getMagnitude() <= 0.f)
         {
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/spellpriority.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/spellpriority.cpp
index 94f24800a2..776381e6b2 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/spellpriority.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/spellpriority.cpp
@@ -573,7 +573,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
                 if (!enemy.isEmpty()
                     && enemy.getClass()
                             .getCreatureStats(enemy)
-                            .getAttribute(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID(effect.mAttribute))
+                            .getAttribute(ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(effect.mAttribute))
                             .getModified()
                         <= 0)
                     return 0.f;
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/spells.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/spells.cpp
index f533926604..12da7cdde8 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/spells.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/spells.cpp
@@ -252,7 +252,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
                 // Applied corprus effects are already in loaded stats modifiers
                 if (info.mId == ESM::MagicEffect::FortifyAttribute)
                 {
-                    auto id = static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(info.mArg);
+                    auto id = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(info.mArg);
                     AttributeValue attr = creatureStats->getAttribute(id);
                     attr.setModifier(attr.getModifier() - info.mMagnitude);
                     attr.damage(-info.mMagnitude);
@@ -260,7 +260,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
                 }
                 else if (info.mId == ESM::MagicEffect::DrainAttribute)
                 {
-                    auto id = static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(info.mArg);
+                    auto id = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(info.mArg);
                     AttributeValue attr = creatureStats->getAttribute(id);
                     attr.setModifier(attr.getModifier() + info.mMagnitude);
                     attr.damage(info.mMagnitude);
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/summoning.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/summoning.cpp
index ceac555802..2af5a2dc83 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/summoning.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwmechanics/summoning.cpp
@@ -166,7 +166,7 @@ namespace MWMechanics
         auto& creatureStats = summoner.getClass().getCreatureStats(summoner);
         creatureStats.getActiveSpells().purge(
             [summon](const auto& spell, const auto& effect) {
-                return effect.mEffectId == summon.first && effect.mArg == summon.second;
+                return effect.mEffectId == summon.first && effect.getActorId() == summon.second;
             },
             summoner);
 
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwscript/statsextensions.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwscript/statsextensions.cpp
index 222820f3bf..0363f21fa6 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwscript/statsextensions.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwscript/statsextensions.cpp
@@ -109,10 +109,10 @@ namespace MWScript
         template <class R>
         class OpGetAttribute : public Interpreter::Opcode0
         {
-            ESM::Attribute::AttributeID mIndex;
+            ESM::RefId mIndex;
 
         public:
-            OpGetAttribute(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID index)
+            OpGetAttribute(ESM::RefId index)
                 : mIndex(index)
             {
             }
@@ -130,10 +130,10 @@ namespace MWScript
         template <class R>
         class OpSetAttribute : public Interpreter::Opcode0
         {
-            ESM::Attribute::AttributeID mIndex;
+            ESM::RefId mIndex;
 
         public:
-            OpSetAttribute(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID index)
+            OpSetAttribute(ESM::RefId index)
                 : mIndex(index)
             {
             }
@@ -154,10 +154,10 @@ namespace MWScript
         template <class R>
         class OpModAttribute : public Interpreter::Opcode0
         {
-            ESM::Attribute::AttributeID mIndex;
+            ESM::RefId mIndex;
 
         public:
-            OpModAttribute(ESM::Attribute::AttributeID index)
+            OpModAttribute(ESM::RefId index)
                 : mIndex(index)
             {
             }
@@ -1322,7 +1322,7 @@ namespace MWScript
         {
             for (int i = 0; i < Compiler::Stats::numberOfAttributes; ++i)
             {
-                auto id = static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(i);
+                ESM::RefId id = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(i);
                 interpreter.installSegment5<OpGetAttribute<ImplicitRef>>(Compiler::Stats::opcodeGetAttribute + i, id);
                 interpreter.installSegment5<OpGetAttribute<ExplicitRef>>(
                     Compiler::Stats::opcodeGetAttributeExplicit + i, id);
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwworld/magiceffects.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwworld/magiceffects.cpp
index ec9d0029c5..8b7ad79db2 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwworld/magiceffects.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwworld/magiceffects.cpp
@@ -184,7 +184,7 @@ namespace MWWorld
         }
         for (const auto& [key, actorId] : creatureStats.mSummonedCreatureMap)
         {
-            if (actorId == -1)
+            if (actorId < 0)
                 continue;
             for (auto& params : creatureStats.mActiveSpells.mSpells)
             {
@@ -195,7 +195,7 @@ namespace MWWorld
                     {
                         if (effect.mEffectId == key.mEffectId && effect.mEffectIndex == key.mEffectIndex)
                         {
-                            effect.mArg = actorId;
+                            effect.mArg = ESM::RefId::generated(static_cast<uint64_t>(actorId));
                             effect.mFlags |= ESM::ActiveEffect::Flag_Applied | ESM::ActiveEffect::Flag_Remove;
                             found = true;
                             break;
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwworld/player.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwworld/player.cpp
index 5fc020eab4..0d7afb559f 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwworld/player.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwworld/player.cpp
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ namespace MWWorld
         for (size_t i = 0; i < mSaveSkills.size(); ++i)
             mSaveSkills[i] = stats.getSkill(ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(i)).getModified();
         for (size_t i = 0; i < mSaveAttributes.size(); ++i)
-            mSaveAttributes[i] = stats.getAttribute(static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(i)).getModified();
+            mSaveAttributes[i] = stats.getAttribute(ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(i)).getModified();
     }
 
     void Player::restoreStats()
@@ -82,7 +82,7 @@ namespace MWWorld
         }
         for (size_t i = 0; i < mSaveAttributes.size(); ++i)
         {
-            auto id = static_cast<ESM::Attribute::AttributeID>(i);
+            auto id = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(i);
             auto attribute = npcStats.getAttribute(id);
             attribute.restore(attribute.getDamage());
             attribute.setModifier(mSaveAttributes[i] - attribute.getBase());
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwworld/store.cpp b/apps/openmw/mwworld/store.cpp
index 3d88851672..a4b8548e52 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwworld/store.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwworld/store.cpp
@@ -1041,87 +1041,50 @@ namespace MWWorld
     // Attribute
     //=========================================================================
 
-    Store<ESM::Attribute>::Store()
-    {
-        mStatic.reserve(ESM::Attribute::Length);
-    }
-    const ESM::Attribute* Store<ESM::Attribute>::search(size_t index) const
-    {
-        if (index >= mStatic.size())
-        {
-            return nullptr;
-        }
-        return &mStatic[index];
-    }
-
-    const ESM::Attribute* Store<ESM::Attribute>::find(size_t index) const
-    {
-        const ESM::Attribute* ptr = search(index);
-        if (ptr == nullptr)
-        {
-            const std::string msg = "Attribute with index " + std::to_string(index) + " not found";
-            throw std::runtime_error(msg);
-        }
-        return ptr;
-    }
     void Store<ESM::Attribute>::setUp(const MWWorld::Store<ESM::GameSetting>& settings)
     {
-        // TODO remove after !3084 gets merged
-        mStatic.clear();
-        mStatic.push_back({ .mId = ESM::Attribute::Strength,
+        insertStatic({ .mId = ESM::Attribute::Strength,
             .mName = std::string{ getGMSTString(settings, "sAttributeStrength") },
             .mDescription = std::string{ getGMSTString(settings, "sStrDesc") },
             .mIcon = "icons\\k\\attribute_strength.dds",
             .mWerewolfValue = getGMSTFloat(settings, "fWerewolfStrength") });
-        mStatic.push_back({ .mId = ESM::Attribute::Intelligence,
+        insertStatic({ .mId = ESM::Attribute::Intelligence,
             .mName = std::string{ getGMSTString(settings, "sAttributeIntelligence") },
             .mDescription = std::string{ getGMSTString(settings, "sIntDesc") },
             .mIcon = "icons\\k\\attribute_int.dds",
             // Oh, Bethesda. It's "Intelligence".
             .mWerewolfValue = getGMSTFloat(settings, "fWerewolfIntellegence") });
-        mStatic.push_back({ .mId = ESM::Attribute::Willpower,
+        insertStatic({ .mId = ESM::Attribute::Willpower,
             .mName = std::string{ getGMSTString(settings, "sAttributeWillpower") },
             .mDescription = std::string{ getGMSTString(settings, "sWilDesc") },
             .mIcon = "icons\\k\\attribute_wilpower.dds",
             .mWerewolfValue = getGMSTFloat(settings, "fWerewolfWillpower") });
-        mStatic.push_back({ .mId = ESM::Attribute::Agility,
+        insertStatic({ .mId = ESM::Attribute::Agility,
             .mName = std::string{ getGMSTString(settings, "sAttributeAgility") },
             .mDescription = std::string{ getGMSTString(settings, "sAgiDesc") },
             .mIcon = "icons\\k\\attribute_agility.dds",
             .mWerewolfValue = getGMSTFloat(settings, "fWerewolfAgility") });
-        mStatic.push_back({ .mId = ESM::Attribute::Speed,
+        insertStatic({ .mId = ESM::Attribute::Speed,
             .mName = std::string{ getGMSTString(settings, "sAttributeSpeed") },
             .mDescription = std::string{ getGMSTString(settings, "sSpdDesc") },
             .mIcon = "icons\\k\\attribute_speed.dds",
             .mWerewolfValue = getGMSTFloat(settings, "fWerewolfSpeed") });
-        mStatic.push_back({ .mId = ESM::Attribute::Endurance,
+        insertStatic({ .mId = ESM::Attribute::Endurance,
             .mName = std::string{ getGMSTString(settings, "sAttributeEndurance") },
             .mDescription = std::string{ getGMSTString(settings, "sEndDesc") },
             .mIcon = "icons\\k\\attribute_endurance.dds",
             .mWerewolfValue = getGMSTFloat(settings, "fWerewolfEndurance") });
-        mStatic.push_back({ .mId = ESM::Attribute::Personality,
+        insertStatic({ .mId = ESM::Attribute::Personality,
             .mName = std::string{ getGMSTString(settings, "sAttributePersonality") },
             .mDescription = std::string{ getGMSTString(settings, "sPerDesc") },
             .mIcon = "icons\\k\\attribute_personality.dds",
             .mWerewolfValue = getGMSTFloat(settings, "fWerewolfPersonality") });
-        mStatic.push_back({ .mId = ESM::Attribute::Luck,
+        insertStatic({ .mId = ESM::Attribute::Luck,
             .mName = std::string{ getGMSTString(settings, "sAttributeLuck") },
             .mDescription = std::string{ getGMSTString(settings, "sLucDesc") },
             .mIcon = "icons\\k\\attribute_luck.dds",
             .mWerewolfValue = getGMSTFloat(settings, "fWerewolfLuck") });
     }
-    size_t Store<ESM::Attribute>::getSize() const
-    {
-        return mStatic.size();
-    }
-    Store<ESM::Attribute>::iterator Store<ESM::Attribute>::begin() const
-    {
-        return mStatic.begin();
-    }
-    Store<ESM::Attribute>::iterator Store<ESM::Attribute>::end() const
-    {
-        return mStatic.end();
-    }
 
     // Dialogue
     //=========================================================================
@@ -1339,7 +1302,7 @@ namespace MWWorld
 template class MWWorld::TypedDynamicStore<ESM::Activator>;
 template class MWWorld::TypedDynamicStore<ESM::Apparatus>;
 template class MWWorld::TypedDynamicStore<ESM::Armor>;
-// template class MWWorld::Store<ESM::Attribute>;
+template class MWWorld::TypedDynamicStore<ESM::Attribute>;
 template class MWWorld::TypedDynamicStore<ESM::BirthSign>;
 template class MWWorld::TypedDynamicStore<ESM::BodyPart>;
 template class MWWorld::TypedDynamicStore<ESM::Book>;
diff --git a/apps/openmw/mwworld/store.hpp b/apps/openmw/mwworld/store.hpp
index bbf095fed1..5cb0d6935c 100644
--- a/apps/openmw/mwworld/store.hpp
+++ b/apps/openmw/mwworld/store.hpp
@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@
 #include <unordered_map>
 #include <vector>
 
+#include <components/esm/attr.hpp>
 #include <components/esm/refid.hpp>
 #include <components/esm/util.hpp>
 #include <components/esm3/loadcell.hpp>
@@ -29,7 +30,6 @@
 
 namespace ESM
 {
-    struct Attribute;
     struct LandTexture;
     struct MagicEffect;
     struct WeaponType;
@@ -492,25 +492,14 @@ namespace MWWorld
     };
 
     template <>
-    class Store<ESM::Attribute> : public IndexedStore<ESM::Attribute>
+    class Store<ESM::Attribute> : public TypedDynamicStore<ESM::Attribute>
     {
-        std::vector<ESM::Attribute> mStatic;
+        using TypedDynamicStore<ESM::Attribute>::setUp;
 
     public:
-        typedef std::vector<ESM::Attribute>::const_iterator iterator;
-
-        Store();
-
-        const ESM::Attribute* search(size_t index) const;
-
-        // calls `search` and throws an exception if not found
-        const ESM::Attribute* find(size_t index) const;
+        Store() = default;
 
         void setUp(const MWWorld::Store<ESM::GameSetting>& settings);
-
-        size_t getSize() const;
-        iterator begin() const;
-        iterator end() const;
     };
 
     template <>
diff --git a/apps/openmw_test_suite/mwworld/test_store.cpp b/apps/openmw_test_suite/mwworld/test_store.cpp
index f6faba0f13..d8890bc5ab 100644
--- a/apps/openmw_test_suite/mwworld/test_store.cpp
+++ b/apps/openmw_test_suite/mwworld/test_store.cpp
@@ -456,6 +456,8 @@ namespace
         {
             refId = ESM::RefId::esm3ExteriorCell(0, 0);
         }
+        else if constexpr (std::is_same_v<RecordType, ESM::Attribute>)
+            refId = ESM::Attribute::Strength;
         else if constexpr (std::is_same_v<RecordType, ESM::Skill>)
             refId = ESM::Skill::Block;
         else
@@ -485,6 +487,12 @@ namespace
             ESM::Dialogue* dialogue = nullptr;
             MWWorld::ESMStore esmStore;
 
+            if constexpr (std::is_same_v<RecordType, ESM::Attribute>)
+            {
+                ASSERT_ANY_THROW(getEsmFile(record, false, formatVersion));
+                continue;
+            }
+
             reader.open(getEsmFile(record, false, formatVersion), "filename");
             ASSERT_NO_THROW(esmStore.load(reader, &dummyListener, dialogue));
             esmStore.setUp();
@@ -575,7 +583,7 @@ namespace
 
     REGISTER_TYPED_TEST_SUITE_P(StoreSaveLoadTest, shouldNotChangeRefId);
 
-    static_assert(std::tuple_size_v<RecordTypesWithSave> == 39);
+    static_assert(std::tuple_size_v<RecordTypesWithSave> == 40);
 
     INSTANTIATE_TYPED_TEST_SUITE_P(
         RecordTypesTest, StoreSaveLoadTest, typename AsTestingTypes<RecordTypesWithSave>::Type);
diff --git a/components/esm/attr.cpp b/components/esm/attr.cpp
index 38119dbc0e..c8fc042849 100644
--- a/components/esm/attr.cpp
+++ b/components/esm/attr.cpp
@@ -1,25 +1,56 @@
 #include "attr.hpp"
-#include <components/misc/strings/algorithm.hpp>
-#include <stdexcept>
 
-using namespace ESM;
+#include <components/esm3/esmreader.hpp>
+#include <components/esm3/esmwriter.hpp>
 
-const std::string Attribute::sAttributeNames[Attribute::Length] = {
-    "Strength",
-    "Intelligence",
-    "Willpower",
-    "Agility",
-    "Speed",
-    "Endurance",
-    "Personality",
-    "Luck",
-};
+#include <stdexcept>
 
-Attribute::AttributeID Attribute::stringToAttributeId(std::string_view attribute)
+namespace ESM
 {
-    for (int id = 0; id < Attribute::Length; ++id)
-        if (Misc::StringUtils::ciEqual(sAttributeNames[id], attribute))
-            return Attribute::AttributeID(id);
+    const Attribute::AttributeID Attribute::Strength("Strength");
+    const Attribute::AttributeID Attribute::Intelligence("Intelligence");
+    const Attribute::AttributeID Attribute::Willpower("Willpower");
+    const Attribute::AttributeID Attribute::Agility("Agility");
+    const Attribute::AttributeID Attribute::Speed("Speed");
+    const Attribute::AttributeID Attribute::Endurance("Endurance");
+    const Attribute::AttributeID Attribute::Personality("Personality");
+    const Attribute::AttributeID Attribute::Luck("Luck");
+
+    static const RefId sAttributes[Attribute::Length] = {
+        Attribute::Strength,
+        Attribute::Intelligence,
+        Attribute::Willpower,
+        Attribute::Agility,
+        Attribute::Speed,
+        Attribute::Endurance,
+        Attribute::Personality,
+        Attribute::Luck,
+    };
+
+    RefId Attribute::indexToRefId(int index)
+    {
+        if (index < 0 || index >= Length)
+            return RefId();
+        return sAttributes[index];
+    }
+
+    int Attribute::refIdToIndex(RefId id)
+    {
+        for (int i = 0; i < Length; ++i)
+        {
+            if (sAttributes[i] == id)
+                return i;
+        }
+        return -1;
+    }
+
+    void Attribute::load(ESMReader& esm, bool& isDeleted)
+    {
+        throw std::runtime_error("Attribute loading not yet implemented");
+    }
 
-    throw std::logic_error("No such attribute: " + std::string(attribute));
+    void Attribute::save(ESMWriter& esm, bool isDeleted) const
+    {
+        throw std::runtime_error("Attribute saving not yet implemented");
+    }
 }
diff --git a/components/esm/attr.hpp b/components/esm/attr.hpp
index 9029306376..a28a90f14c 100644
--- a/components/esm/attr.hpp
+++ b/components/esm/attr.hpp
@@ -2,9 +2,15 @@
 #define OPENMW_ESM_ATTR_H
 
 #include <string>
+#include <string_view>
+
+#include "defs.hpp"
+#include "refid.hpp"
 
 namespace ESM
 {
+    class ESMReader;
+    class ESMWriter;
 
     /*
      * Attribute definitions
@@ -12,26 +18,30 @@ namespace ESM
 
     struct Attribute
     {
-        enum AttributeID
-        {
-            Strength = 0,
-            Intelligence = 1,
-            Willpower = 2,
-            Agility = 3,
-            Speed = 4,
-            Endurance = 5,
-            Personality = 6,
-            Luck = 7,
-            Length = 8
-        };
+        constexpr static RecNameInts sRecordId = REC_ATTR;
+        /// Return a string descriptor for this record type. Currently used for debugging / error logs only.
+        static std::string_view getRecordType() { return "Attribute"; }
+
+        using AttributeID = StringRefId;
+        static const AttributeID Strength;
+        static const AttributeID Intelligence;
+        static const AttributeID Willpower;
+        static const AttributeID Agility;
+        static const AttributeID Speed;
+        static const AttributeID Endurance;
+        static const AttributeID Personality;
+        static const AttributeID Luck;
+        static constexpr int Length = 8;
 
         AttributeID mId;
         std::string mName, mDescription, mIcon;
         float mWerewolfValue{};
 
-        static const std::string sAttributeNames[Length];
+        void load(ESMReader& esm, bool& isDeleted);
+        void save(ESMWriter& esm, bool isDeleted = false) const;
 
-        static AttributeID stringToAttributeId(std::string_view attribute);
+        static RefId indexToRefId(int index);
+        static int refIdToIndex(RefId id);
     };
 }
 #endif
diff --git a/components/esm/defs.hpp b/components/esm/defs.hpp
index 617873d8e1..96d70f6fea 100644
--- a/components/esm/defs.hpp
+++ b/components/esm/defs.hpp
@@ -180,6 +180,8 @@ namespace ESM
         // format 21 - Random state in saved games.
         REC_RAND = esm3Recname("RAND"), // Random state.
 
+        REC_ATTR = esm3Recname("ATTR"), // Attribute
+
         REC_AACT4 = esm4Recname(ESM4::REC_AACT), // Action
         REC_ACHR4 = esm4Recname(ESM4::REC_ACHR), // Actor Reference
         REC_ACTI4 = esm4Recname(ESM4::REC_ACTI), // Activator
diff --git a/components/esm3/activespells.cpp b/components/esm3/activespells.cpp
index 27d260fe72..8ce47b7719 100644
--- a/components/esm3/activespells.cpp
+++ b/components/esm3/activespells.cpp
@@ -2,11 +2,93 @@
 
 #include "esmreader.hpp"
 #include "esmwriter.hpp"
+#include "loadmgef.hpp"
+#include "loadskil.hpp"
+
+#include <components/esm/attr.hpp>
+
+#include <cstdint>
 
 namespace ESM
 {
     namespace
     {
+        bool isSummon(int effectId)
+        {
+            switch (effectId)
+            {
+                case MagicEffect::SummonScamp:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonClannfear:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonDaedroth:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonDremora:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonAncestralGhost:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonSkeletalMinion:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonBonewalker:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonGreaterBonewalker:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonBonelord:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonWingedTwilight:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonHunger:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonGoldenSaint:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonFlameAtronach:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonFrostAtronach:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonStormAtronach:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonCenturionSphere:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonFabricant:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonWolf:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonBear:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonBonewolf:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonCreature04:
+                case MagicEffect::SummonCreature05:
+                    return true;
+            }
+            return false;
+        }
+        bool affectsAttribute(int effectId)
+        {
+            switch (effectId)
+            {
+                case MagicEffect::DrainAttribute:
+                case MagicEffect::DamageAttribute:
+                case MagicEffect::RestoreAttribute:
+                case MagicEffect::FortifyAttribute:
+                case MagicEffect::AbsorbAttribute:
+                    return true;
+            }
+            return false;
+        }
+        bool affectsSkill(int effectId)
+        {
+            switch (effectId)
+            {
+                case MagicEffect::DrainSkill:
+                case MagicEffect::DamageSkill:
+                case MagicEffect::RestoreSkill:
+                case MagicEffect::FortifySkill:
+                case MagicEffect::AbsorbSkill:
+                    return true;
+            }
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        struct ToInt
+        {
+            int effectId;
+
+            int operator()(const ESM::RefId& id) const
+            {
+                if (!id.empty())
+                {
+                    if (affectsAttribute(effectId))
+                        return ESM::Attribute::refIdToIndex(id);
+                    else if (affectsSkill(effectId))
+                        return ESM::Skill::refIdToIndex(id);
+                }
+                return -1;
+            }
+
+            int operator()(int actor) const { return actor; }
+        };
+
         void saveImpl(ESMWriter& esm, const std::vector<ActiveSpells::ActiveSpellParams>& spells, NAME tag)
         {
             for (const auto& params : spells)
@@ -27,8 +109,9 @@ namespace ESM
                 for (auto& effect : params.mEffects)
                 {
                     esm.writeHNT("MGEF", effect.mEffectId);
-                    if (effect.mArg != -1)
-                        esm.writeHNT("ARG_", effect.mArg);
+                    int arg = std::visit(ToInt{ effect.mEffectId }, effect.mArg);
+                    if (arg != -1)
+                        esm.writeHNT("ARG_", arg);
                     esm.writeHNT("MAGN", effect.mMagnitude);
                     esm.writeHNT("MAGN", effect.mMinMagnitude);
                     esm.writeHNT("MAGN", effect.mMaxMagnitude);
@@ -81,8 +164,17 @@ namespace ESM
                 {
                     ActiveEffect effect;
                     esm.getHT(effect.mEffectId);
-                    effect.mArg = -1;
-                    esm.getHNOT(effect.mArg, "ARG_");
+                    int32_t arg = -1;
+                    esm.getHNOT(arg, "ARG_");
+                    if (arg >= 0)
+                    {
+                        if (isSummon(effect.mEffectId))
+                            effect.mArg = arg;
+                        else if (affectsAttribute(effect.mEffectId))
+                            effect.mArg = ESM::Attribute::indexToRefId(arg);
+                        else if (affectsSkill(effect.mEffectId))
+                            effect.mArg = ESM::Skill::indexToRefId(arg);
+                    }
                     esm.getHNT(effect.mMagnitude, "MAGN");
                     if (format <= MaxClearModifiersFormatVersion)
                     {
@@ -112,10 +204,7 @@ namespace ESM
             }
         }
     }
-}
 
-namespace ESM
-{
     void ActiveSpells::save(ESMWriter& esm) const
     {
         saveImpl(esm, mSpells, "ID__");
@@ -127,4 +216,18 @@ namespace ESM
         loadImpl(esm, mSpells, "ID__");
         loadImpl(esm, mQueue, "QID_");
     }
+
+    RefId ActiveEffect::getSkillOrAttribute() const
+    {
+        if (const auto* id = std::get_if<ESM::RefId>(&mArg))
+            return *id;
+        return {};
+    }
+
+    int ActiveEffect::getActorId() const
+    {
+        if (const auto* id = std::get_if<int>(&mArg))
+            return *id;
+        return -1;
+    }
 }
diff --git a/components/esm3/activespells.hpp b/components/esm3/activespells.hpp
index 531a39b4c7..0e4e01eda3 100644
--- a/components/esm3/activespells.hpp
+++ b/components/esm3/activespells.hpp
@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@
 #include "timestamp.hpp"
 
 #include <string>
+#include <variant>
 #include <vector>
 
 namespace ESM
@@ -32,11 +33,14 @@ namespace ESM
         float mMagnitude;
         float mMinMagnitude;
         float mMaxMagnitude;
-        int32_t mArg; // skill or attribute
+        std::variant<RefId, int> mArg; // skill, attribute, or summon
         float mDuration;
         float mTimeLeft;
         int32_t mEffectIndex;
         int32_t mFlags;
+
+        RefId getSkillOrAttribute() const;
+        int getActorId() const;
     };
 
     // format 0, saved games only